tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-60254879208681140882024-03-13T22:47:20.933+03:00Ecological world All about Ecology Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.comBlogger119125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-23795079087691631352017-08-17T18:01:00.001+03:002017-08-17T18:02:27.505+03:00What Plants Talk About (Full Documentary)<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="270" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CrrSAc-vjG4" width="480"></iframe>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-88916238398068693332017-02-16T21:16:00.001+03:002017-02-16T21:16:20.728+03:00 "COP22: Fostering Climate Change Resilience in Egypt" <br /><br />
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<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">World leaders assembled in Marrakech for the 22nd annual climate change conference, known as COP22, to come up with an action plan for the implementation of the Paris Agreement. Despite the uncertainty caused by Donald Trump’s pledge for the US to pull out of the Paris climate agreement, many leaders chose to look ahead. This showed that the Paris Agreement and the underlying cause reach beyond any individual country.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333;" /></span></div><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Prior to COP22, 55 nations had already ratified the Paris Agreement, representing 55% of the total global emissions which is the minimum percentage required for the agreement to enter force and thus become international law. By the end of COP22, a total of 111 countries have ratified the agreement. Additionally, 11 countries pledged to inject an extra $50 million for the Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency Fund for developing countries not only to monitor and track, but to fulfil their existing climate pledges and build upon them. While some developing countries pushed for differentiating between the developed and developing countries in bearing the responsibility. 47 of the world’s poorest countries – allied as the Climate Vulnerable Forum - committed to generate 100% of their energy from renewable resources as soon as possible. Many African countries also played an important role at COP22 by announcing the ambitious African Renewable Energy Initiative (AREI) which sets out to generate 10GW from renewable resources by 2020 and 300GW by 2030.</span></span><br /><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">The 45th Cairo Climate Talks will bring together experts on climate policy, climate change science, and renewable energy to share their knowledge and insights on the 2018 plan based on the decisions made at COP22 and the question how those decisions will affect Egypt. Which mitigation, adaptation and finance plans are being adopted by the Egyptian government? How can civil society play a role in achieving those plans? And how can those plans help Egypt’s economy grow while securing a safe planet for all?</span></span><br /><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Ambassador Wael Abou El Magd, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs for Environment and Sustainable Development of Egypt</span></span><br /><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Dr. Maged Mahmoud, Director for Projects and Technical Affairs, Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Hoda Baraka, Global Communication manager for “350.org” organization</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Mahmoud El Refai, Project Manager for Power Generation Services, Siemens</span></span><br /><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Lena Donat, Fellow at Ecologic Institute, Member of Ecologic Legal Team</span></span><br /><br />
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-13650511764872932332017-02-16T21:10:00.001+03:002017-02-16T21:10:46.854+03:00Public Award Voting for REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Voting for the Public Award of the REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest is open 1-28 February 2017. Voting is open to all members of the public. The REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest was launched in 2016 and received over fifty project submissions from across Europe. The aim of the contest is to recognize groundbreaking projects and ideas addressing food waste.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Public Award: REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest<br /></td></tr>
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<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #666b6e; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 24px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Vote Now: <a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/food-waste-solution-contest-public-award" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">Public Award REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest<span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"></span></a></span></strong></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><strong style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/food-waste-solution-contest-public-award" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"><span class="element-invisible" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute !important; vertical-align: baseline;">(link is external)</span></span></a></strong><a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/contest#selection-jury" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"><span class="element-invisible" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute !important; vertical-align: baseline;">(link is external)</span></span></a> of the REFRESH Food Waste Solution Contest and have the opportunity to present their project at the <a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/conference2017" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">REFRESH Food Waste 2017 Conference<span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"><span class="element-invisible" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute !important; vertical-align: baseline;">(link is external)</span></span></a><a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/conference2017" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"><span class="element-invisible" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute !important; vertical-align: baseline;">(link is external)</span></span></a> on 18 May 2017 in Berlin.<a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><span class="ext" style="background: url("/sites/all/modules/extlink/extlink_s.png") 2px center no-repeat; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 10px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 12px 0px 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 10px;"><span class="element-invisible" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute !important; vertical-align: baseline;">(link is external)</span></span></a> (Resource Efficient Food and dRink for the Entire Supply cHain) and organizes the contest and the conference.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Each person can vote once per day for the entire voting period (one vote is allowed per IP address per day). Votes are cast by clicking the "VOTE" button in the top right corner of the contest submission's page.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Public Award winner will join two winners selected by the <a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/contest#selection-jury" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">jury</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Ecologic Institute is a partner of the EU resea</span><span style="font-family: Humanist777, Frutiger, Helvetica, Arial, Verdana, Ubuntu, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">rch project <a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">REFRESH</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Humanist777, Frutiger, Helvetica, Arial, Verdana, Ubuntu, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><a class="ext" href="http://eu-refresh.org/" style="border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #004f9e; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0Berlin, Almanya52.520006599999988 13.40495399999997552.21073109999999 12.759506999999974 52.829282099999986 14.050400999999976tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-70733204579377807672017-02-09T14:26:00.000+03:002017-02-09T14:26:02.193+03:00Why the ocean has absorbed more carbon over the past decade<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the ocean absorbing more <b>carbon dioxide</b> (CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>) over the past decade, less of the greenhouse gas is reaching the Earth's atmosphere. That's decidedly good news, but it comes with a catch: Rising levels of CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> in the ocean promote acidification, which breaks down the calcium carbonate shells of some marine organisms.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Geographers have determined why the ocean has absorbed more carbon over the past decade.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The cause of this recent increase in oceanic CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> uptake, which has implications for climate change, has been a mystery. But new research from UC Santa Barbara geographer Timothy DeVries and colleagues demonstrates that a slowdown of the ocean's overturning circulation is the likely catalyst. Their findings appear in the journal <em style="border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box;">Nature</em>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"Such a slowdown is consistent with the projected effects of anthropogenic climate change, where warming and freshening of the surface ocean from melting ice caps leads to weaker overturning circulation," DeVries explained. "But over the time periods we studied, it's not possible to say whether the slowdown is related to natural climate variability or to climate change caused by human activity."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">DeVries and fellow researchers Mark Holzer of the University of New South Wales in Sydney and François Primeau of UC Irvine compiled existing oceanographic tracer data -- measurements of temperature, salinity, CFCs (humanmade gases that dissolve into the ocean) and carbon-14 -- and separated it into three decade-long time periods: the 1980s, the 1990s and the 2000s.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Subsequent computer analysis of that data enabled the researchers to characterize ocean circulation -- the transfer of water from the surface to the deep ocean and back again -- for each time period. They then analyzed ocean-atmosphere carbon exchange and ocean carbon cycling within their circulation model.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"As the circulation changed from decade to decade -- 1980s to 1990s to 2000s -- the model predicted a big dip in oceanic CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>uptake during the 1990s, then a large increase in uptake during the 2000s," DeVries explained. "Furthermore, these swings were attributed directly to the changes in ocean circulation."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">According to DeVries, this finding may seem counterintuitive. Prevailing scientific wisdom asserts that the deceleration of circulation diminishes the ocean's ability to absorb anthropogenic CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> from the atmosphere as surface waters warm and become saturated with CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"While that is true, there is another effect that appears to be more important in the short term," DeVries said. "The weaker overturning circulation brings less naturally CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>-rich deep waters to the surface, which limits how much of that gas in the deep ocean escapes to the atmosphere. That causes the ocean to absorb more CO<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> from the atmosphere."</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-37824729071286842562017-02-07T19:58:00.001+03:002017-02-07T20:06:33.986+03:00Ecology - Rules for Living on Earth: Crash Course Biology<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Hank introduces us to ecology - the study of the rules of engagement for all of us earthlings - which seeks to explain why the world looks and acts the way it does. The world is crammed with things, both animate and not, that have been interacting with each other all the time, every day, since life on this planet began, and these interactions depend mostly on just two things... Learn what they are as Crash Course Biology takes its final voyage outside the body and into the entire world. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;">Stay tuned in the coming weeks for a new Crash Course in ECOLOGY! </span></span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-87959983958021091602017-02-07T19:51:00.000+03:002017-02-07T19:54:08.098+03:00Gecko eludes foes with tearaway skin<br />
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A newly discovered species of gecko has tearaway skin that leaves predators with nothing but a mouthful of scales when attacked.</div>
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Many lizards can detach their tails when attacked, but fish-scale geckos have large scales that tear away with ease.</div>
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The new species is a master of this art, say scientists, having the largest scales of any known gecko.</div>
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The reptile, named <i style="border: 0px; color: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: 1.375; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Geckolepis megalepis</i>, <a class="story-body__link-external" href="https://peerj.com/articles/2955" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(17, 103, 168, 0.298039); border-bottom-color: rgb(220, 220, 220); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: #222222; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: bold; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: 1.375; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">is described in PeerJ</a>.</div>
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The skin of fish-scale geckos is specially adapted to tearing. The large scales are attached only by a relatively narrow region that tears with ease.</div>
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In addition, beneath the scales there is a pre-formed splitting zone within the skin itself.</div>
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<figcaption class="media-caption" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 16px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible;"><span class="off-screen" style="border: 0px; clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 1px; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: absolute; vertical-align: baseline; width: 1px;"><span style="background-color: white;">Image caption</span></span><span class="media-caption__text" style="border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: 1.23077; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white;">When grasped by a predator, fish-scale geckos lose not just their scales but also the skin underneath</span></span></figcaption><div style="background-color: white; color: #404040;">
Although several other geckos are able to lose their skin like this if they are grasped firmly, fish-scale geckos are able to do so actively - and at the slightest touch.</div>
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They can also grow them back scar-free in a matter of weeks, while other geckos might take a long time to regenerate their scales.</div>
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But <i style="border: 0px; color: inherit; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: inherit; line-height: 1.375; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Geckolepis megalepis</i> is remarkable for the huge size of its scales. The researchers hypothesise that larger scales tear more easily than smaller ones, because of their greater surface area relative to the attachment area, and larger friction surface.</div>
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"What's really remarkable though is that these scales - which are really dense and may even be bony, and must be quite energetically costly to produce - and the skin beneath them tear away with such ease, and can be regenerated quickly and without a scar," said lead author Mark Scherz, from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.</div>
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The new species was discovered in the Tsingy cave formations of northern Madagascar.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-35981963864029122592017-02-07T19:44:00.001+03:002017-02-07T19:44:45.854+03:00Important submarine canyons ecosystems are at risk<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A recent review of studies of submarine canyons has identified that they are at risk from human activities, and require better protection.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The review was published in the journal <em style="border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box;">Frontiers in Marine Science</em> by a team of scientists that are part of the International Network for submarine Canyon Investigation and Scientific Exchange (INCISE). INCISE is an initiative that aims to bring together scientists working on all aspects of submarine canyon research, and to stimulate discussions across disciplines.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Submarine canyons are major geomorphic features of continental margins, and nearly 10,000 large canyons are estimated to exist around the world. Recent multidisciplinary projects focused on the study of canyons have considerably increased our understanding of their ecological role, the goods and services they provide to human populations, and the impacts that human activities have on their overall ecological condition.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Pressures from human activities include litter, fishing, dumping of land-based mine tailings, and oil and gas extraction. The effects of climate change may modify the intensity of currents within canyons, which is predicted to impact the structure and functioning of canyon communities as well as affect food supply to the deep-ocean ecosystem.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Ulla Fernandez-Arcaya from Spain, the lead author of the review, says "Our review not only identifies the ecological importance of canyons, but also highlights the need for a better understanding of anthropogenic impacts on canyon ecosystems."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Canyons face a number of current and future issues for their conservation, and the review study proposes the types of research required to inform management measures to protect canyon ecosystems. Only 10% of all canyons identified worldwide are completely protected by marine protected areas (MPAs), and these are not evenly distributed around the globe. Furthermore, submarine canyon protection is mainly focussed on the shallow parts of canyons, although it is important to protect complete systems, given their role as main connection between shallow and deep waters.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Dr Eva Ramirez-Llodra, marine biologist at the Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) in Oslo and second author of the review says: "Submarine canyons are essential habitats that provide habitat to rich faunal communities and can provide habitat for the early stages of some species and refuge for others. They can also support rich fisheries. The abrupt and complex terrain of submarine canyons has partly slowed down their detailed investigation. However, novel technologies are allowing us to better investigate canyon ecosystems, as well as exploit their natural resources. It is thus timely to develop management and conservation options based on robust ecosystem-based scientific knowledge."</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-89724575084333216122017-02-07T19:40:00.000+03:002017-02-07T19:40:14.666+03:00Hundreds of ancient earthworks built in the Amazon<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif; text-align: start;">The Amazonian rainforest was transformed over two thousand years ago by ancient people who built hundreds of large, mysterious earthworks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Findings by Brazilian and UK experts provide new evidence for how indigenous people lived in the Amazon before European people arrived in the region.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The ditched enclosures, in Acre state in the western Brazilian Amazon, were concealed for centuries by trees. Modern deforestation has allowed the discovery of more than 450 of these large geometrical geoglyphs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The function of these mysterious sites is still little understood -- they are unlikely to be villages, since archaeologists recover very few artefacts during excavation. The layout doesn't suggest they were built for defensive reasons. It is thought they were used only sporadically, perhaps as ritual gathering places.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The structures are ditched enclosures that occupy roughly 13,000 km<span style="border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span>. Their discovery challenges assumptions that the rainforest ecosystem has been untouched by humans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The research was carried out by Jennifer Watling, post-doctoral researcher at the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, University of São Paulo, when she was studying for a PhD at the University of Exeter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Dr Watling said: "The fact that these sites lay hidden for centuries beneath mature rainforest really challenges the idea that Amazonian forests are 'pristine ecosystems`.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">"We immediately wanted to know whether the region was already forested when the geoglyphs were built, and to what extent people impacted the landscape to build these earthworks."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Using state-of-the-art methods, the team members were able to reconstruct 6000 years of vegetation and fire history around two geoglyph sites. They found that humans heavily altered bamboo forests for millennia and small, temporary clearings were made to build the geoglyphs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Instead of burning large tracts of forest -- either for geoglyph construction or agricultural practices -- people transformed their environment by concentrating on economically valuable tree species such as palms, creating a kind of 'prehistoric supermarket' of useful forest products. The team found tantalizing evidence to suggest that the biodiversity of some of Acre's remaining forests may have a strong legacy of these ancient 'agroforestry' practices.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Dr. Watling said: "Despite the huge number and density of geoglyph sites in the region, we can be certain that Acre's forests were never cleared as extensively, or for as long, as they have been in recent years.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">"Our evidence that Amazonian forests have been managed by indigenous peoples long before European Contact should not be cited as justification for the destructive, unsustainable land-use practiced today. It should instead serve to highlight the ingenuity of past subsistence regimes that did not lead to forest degradation, and the importance of indigenous knowledge for finding more sustainable land-use alternatives."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The full article will be released in the <em style="border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box;">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em> of the USA and involved researchers from the universities of Exeter, Reading and Swansea (UK), São Paulo, Belém and Acre (Brazil). The research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, National Geographic, and the Natural Environment Research Council Radiocarbon Facility.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To conduct the study, the team extracted soil samples from a series of pits dug within and outside of the geoglyphs. From these soils, they analysed 'phytoliths', a type of microscopic plant fossil made of silica, to reconstruct ancient vegetation; charcoal quantities, to assess the amount of ancient forest burning; and carbon stable isotopes, to indicate how 'open' the vegetation was in the past.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-21884206400663988112017-01-27T12:08:00.001+03:002017-02-08T17:39:52.853+03:00PHYSICAL FITNESS<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Physical fitness is a popular topic today. and its
popularity has been a major factor in motivating college students to pursue
careers in physical edu-cation, physiology of exercise, health education,
nutrition, physical therapy, and medicine. The Public Health Service
listed "physical fitness and exercise- as one of fifteen areas of concern
related to improving the country's overall health (N). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">While this might appear
to be an unprecedented event. similar interests and concerns about physical
fit-ness existed in this country over one hundred years ago. Between the Civil
War and the First World War (WW 1), physical education was primarily concerned
with the development and maintenance of fitness, and many of the leaders in
physical education were trained in medicine For example, Dr. Dudley Sargent,
hired by Harvard University in 1879, set up a physical training program with
individual exercise prescriptions to improve a person's structure and function
to achieve "that prime physical condition called fitness fitness for work,
fitness for play, fitness for anything a man may be called upon to do.. Sargent
was clearly ahead of his time in promoting healthrelated fitness. Later, war
became a primary force driving this country's interest in physical fitness. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Concerns about health and fitness were raised during int WW I and WW H when
large numbers of draftees failed the induction exams due to mental and physical
defects . These concerns influenced the
)gy type of physical education programs in the schools of during these years,
making them resemble premilitary training programs . </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The present interest in
physical activity and health was stimulated in the early 1950s by two major
find-, A ings: autopsies of young soldiers killed during the to Korean War
showed that significant coronary artery :ed disease had already developed, and Hans Kraus his showed that American children performed poorly on a )ne
minimal muscular fitness test compared to European the children . Due to the
latter finding, Presi-dent Eisenhower initiated a conference in 1955 that
resulted in the formation of the President's Council on Youth Fitness. The
American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER)
sup-ported these activities and in 1957 developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
with national norms to be used in physical education programs throughout the
country. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Before he was inaugurated, President Kennedy expressed his concerns about
the nation's at fitness in an article published in Sports Illustrated, called
"The Soft American" : For the physical vigor of our citizens is one
of America's most precious resources. If we waste and neglect this resource, if
we allow it to dwindle and grow soft, then we will destroy much of our ability
to meet the great and vital challenges its which confront our people. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We will
be unable to iing realize our full potential as a nation. du-ion, During
Kennedy's term the council's name was )80, changed to the "President's
Council on Physical and Fitness" to highlight the concern for fitness. The
ited name was changed again in the Nixon administra-hile tion to the current
"President's Council on Physical ent, Fitness and Sports," which
supports fitness not only fit in schools but in business, industry, and for
the genears eral public . </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Items in the War Youth Fitness Test were changed
over the years, and ned in 1980 the American Alliance for Health, Physical
Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) published a separate Health-Related
Physical Fitness Test Manual to distinguish between "performance
testing" (e.g., 50 yard dash) and "fitness testing" (e.g.,
skinfold thickness). This health-related test battery is consistent with the
direction of lifetime fitness programs, being concerned with obesity,
cardiorespiratory fitness, and low-back function. For those readers interested
in the history of fitness testing in schools, we recommend Park's monograph in
the Suggested Readings. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Paralleling this
interest in the physical fitness of youth was the rising concern about the
death rate from coronary heart disease in the middle-aged American</span><o:p></o:p></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-24704266757860966272017-01-27T11:08:00.000+03:002017-02-08T17:40:30.625+03:00Bioenergetics<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">T</span></b>housands of chemical reactions occur throughout the body during each minute of the day. Collec-tively, these reactions are called metabolism. Metab-olism includes chemical pathways that result in the synthesis of molecules (anabolic reactions) as well as the breakdown of molecules (catabolic reactions). Since energy is required by all cells, it is not sur-prising that cells possess chemical pathways that are capable of converting foodstuffs (i.e., fats, proteins, carbohydrates) into a <span style="color: #274e13;">biologically</span> usable form of <span style="color: #783f04;">energy</span>. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This metabolic process is termed bioenergetics. In order for you to run, jump, or swim, skeletal muscle cells must be able to continuously extract energy from food nutrients. In fact, the inability to transform energy contained in foodstuffs into usable biological energy would limit performance in endurance activities. The explanation for this is simple. To continue to contract, muscle cells must have a continuous source of energy. When energy is not readily available, muscular contraction is not possible, and thus work must stop. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Therefore, given the importance of cellular energy production during exercise, it is critical that the student of exercise physiology develop a thorough understanding of <span style="color: #cc0000;">bioenergetics</span>. It is the purpose of this chapter to introduce both general and specific concepts associated with bioenergetics. </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-48126565685474063462017-01-25T00:33:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:59.125+03:00Last frontiers for human exploration <br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">W</span>e find it ironic that so much effort and so many resources are put into the exploration of outer space, at a time when humans are progressively using resources to depletion and when so little is known about the biological diversity of the earth. Why is there all this publicity about ancient life discovered on the planet Mars when there are regions of the Earth where life has yet to be explored?<br />
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Life at the extremes of <span style="color: #0b5394;">environmental</span> conditions are to be found on the Earth. For example, studies of life atgreat depths in the oceans has hardly begun. Recently, an entire new kingdom of deep organisms, the Archaea, has been recognised; although discovered some decades ago, genetic analysis has shown them to be quite unlike any other kind of life (Earle, 1996).<br />
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We have been concerned to read of proposals for using deep oceans for disposal of global waste that is inert or rich in metals or even in organic compounds (but not industrial organic compounds). Quite rightly, some proponents of these methods of global waste management have recom-mended the need for appropriately scaled experiments and further research on the processes that maintain the diversity of benthic assemblages (Angel & Rice, 1996).<br />
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The oceans are truly one of the last frontiers for exploration and the challenges of undertaking such exploration are huge. The mechanics of sampling are difficult, little is known about the taxonomy of the biota at great depths, and the low density of some organisms and the cryptic nature of the many creatures make them difficult to locate. Once located and if captured (which is not easy), there are more difficulties because there are no well-developed techniques for ensuring that the material is not damaged during retrieval.<br />
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The <span style="color: red;">b</span><b><span style="color: red;">iogeograph</span></b>y of the sea, particularly the biogeography of the ocean depths is worthy of much greater attention and can justify much greater support for research than questionable work on the possible existence of life on another planet.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-17174403728467013892017-01-24T02:28:00.002+03:002017-02-08T17:38:36.900+03:00Islands<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b> H</b></span>ow often have you seen those wonderful advertisements inviting you to have a holiday on a tropical island (<span style="background-color: #20124d;">Fig.</span> )What is it about islands, whether in the tropics or polar regions, that suggests romance, excitement and adventure? Is it because of a sense of escape from the pressures and stress of a bustling way of life, or the opportunity to savour sun-soaked beaches, or the adventure of rocky unexplored shores, or perhaps the chance of seeing unique island wildlife? It is for all these reasons that there is a growing tourist industry for many islands around the world. The wildlife of islands, especially oceanic <a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/island" target="_blank">islands</a>, has long been of special significance in <b><span style="color: #0c343d;">biology</span></b>, <b><span style="color: #38761d;"><a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/Ecology" target="_blank">ecology</a></span></b>, conservation and biogeography. Studies of island species have also been of historical significance for evolutionary biology. Many of the world's islands have high levels of endemic flora and fauna; that is, taxa found only on a particular island and no other place. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/island" target="_blank"><b>Island</b> </a>biota has often been devastated by the effects of introduc-ed species, whether that be by accident or by deliberate means. In the last few hundred years human beings have been the main carriers of introduced species to islands, sometimes with drastic consequences for the indigenous biota. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For example, information assembled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre shows that most vertebrate extinctions have been on islands and a high proportion of endangered vertebrates occur on islands. A growing tourism industry could, without careful planning, contribute further to the continuing and growing loss of wildlife on <a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/island" target="_blank">islands</a>. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We commence this chapter by describing what an <a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/island" target="_blank">island</a> is and then Fe: brief introduction to the historically important island biogeographical stu-dies. Then we mention some intriguing aspects of <a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/island" target="_blank">island</a> biology and final introduce the topic of island conservation and restoration. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Islands</b> and island biogeography It seems curious to ask `What is an island?' The answer is straightforward DUE there are different kinds of island. An island is an area of land permanently surrounded by water. Islands occur in rivers, within lakes, in estuaries no some are oceanic. On the basis of <b>geological</b> history, at least three types of oceanic island have been recognised (resulting from movements of the Earth's tectonic plates). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There are oceanic ridge islands, so called 'hot spot' islands and those of island arcs. The first two result from volcanic activity but form as the volcano emerges from the ocean floor. Islands of island arcs are also volcanic but are formed where geological plates collide; the descending plane gives rise to series of volcanic activity and the visible results are islands distributed along an arc. But the question 'What is an island?' is important because island biogeog-raphy can include studies of more than just pieces of land surrounded by water. At the very least, in <span style="color: #b45f06;">biogeography</span>, it is important to state how the term Island' is used. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For some people, island biogeography includes islands as defined above and also 'mainland islands' or 'island habitats', for example the upper levels on mountains or remnants of woodland surrounded by agricul-tural land. The theories of island biogeography have often been dis-cussed along with theories about the effects of fragmentation of habitats and biological communities, hence sometimes mixing the ecology of islands and the <a href="http://ecologicaljournal.blogspot.com/search/label/Ecology" target="_blank">ecology</a> of isolated habitats (sometimes called habitat fragments or 'island habitats'). Islands are small areas of land surrounded by water whereas isolated habitats include remnants of what were once larger expanses of biological communities. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Other examples include lakes and ponds where populations of a species are isolated from each other. There are also examples of isolated alpine plant and animal communities. Mixing the biogeography of islands with the spatial ecology of mainland habitats has commonly and regrettably occurred with respect to ideas about the design of nature reserves and other kinds of designated conservation area. For reasons which we hope will become clear, our appraisal of the application of island biogeography to nature reserve design has been given over to <b>Habitat</b> fragmentation. In we use the term island to refer only to a piece of land surrounded by water. </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-55290627515729072472017-01-23T13:49:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:59.129+03:00Applications of biogeography <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"> B</span>iogeography</b> has had a very important role to play in the development of our understanding of biology. For example it was biogeography that was the key to developing the theory of the evolution of life. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Today, not only does biogeographical research have important applications in a world of rapidly increasing human population densities and diminishing resources, it has crucial applications for conservation and sustainable use of many levels of biological diversity. If we are to make the best uses of limited resources for conservation we must know much more about the geography and ecology of the many kinds of biological diversity. Some questions in biogeography may seem rather academic. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For example, why are certain species and certain groups of organisms foundinrid scale? localities and nowhere else? What has caused these patterns on a world Why is it that for many groups of organisms there are fewer and fewer species in the north and in the south compared to the tropical regions? Why is it that in some regions there are few species but the abundance of some individual species is very high? Answers to these questions help us to understand the processes and interactions that have resulted in present distribution patterns and the mechanism by which they are currently maintained. In turn, that information can be used to help to reduce human impact on the environment and can help us to use the environment in a sustainable manner. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We cannot make good decisions about the conservation of nature if we do not know what is there and where it is. Therefore many questions in biogeography are crucial for conservation. For example, what is the location and distribution of species throughout the world on land, in the water and in the sea? Where are the highest levels of species richness? Where are the different levels of biological diversity to be found? Where do you find the highest levels of biological diversity? Biogeography has important applications, particularly because of the huge gaps in our knowledge and because of the increasing rate at which so many levels of biological diversity are being damaged and lost. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">We cannot make good decisions about the conseercation of nature if we do not know what is there and where it is. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Therefore many questions in and distribution of species throughout the world on land, in the water and in the sea ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Where are the highest levels of species richness?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Where are the diffrent levels of biological diversity to be found? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Where do you find and in the sea? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Where are the highest levels of species richness? </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Where are the different levels of biological diversity the highest levels of biological diversity? </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Biogeography has important applications, particularly because of the huge gaps in our knowledge and because of the increasing rate at which so many levels of biological diversity are being damaged and lost . </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Conservation of wildlife and habitats is achieved in part by the establish-ment of various kinds of protected area such as nature reserves on land, in rivers and lakes and in the sea. Where should nature reserves be located and why? </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">How large should they be? How should they be managed? Should protected areas be buffered from perturbations arising from land use activities around the protected areas? Biogeography has played a major role in answer-ing these questions . Biogeography also has a part to play in assessing possible impacts on the environment that might be caused by new developments in land use. Deter-mining the likely effects of major projects on the natural environment (land, water or sea) by way of the formalised procedure of an Environmental Impact Assessment has become a statutory requirement in many countries through-out the world. </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-67177098261574870672017-01-23T03:29:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.817+03:00 Ecology and Biogeography<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">E</span>cology and biogeography </span></b>In 1870, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) first coined the term 'ecology' and defined it as 'the total relations of the animal both to its inorganic and organic environment'. In some ways that encapsulated what ecology is today; the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment; but also including (1) the study of the abundance of organisms in space and time and (2) the processes in biological communities. Early in the 20th century, ecology emerged from natural history and wildlife manage-ment as a science. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Developments in early ecology occurred simultaneously in both North America and Europe. Landmarks in early animal ecology text-books included Arthur Pearse's Animal Ecology (published by McGraw-Hill in 1926) and the work of Charles Elton (Animal Ecology, published by Sidgwick & Jackson in 1927). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Much of the stimulus for the emergence of plant community studies came from the work of Tansley (1935) and Watt (1947) in Britain and from F. E. Clements in North America (Dynamics of Vegetation, published by Hafner Press in 1949). The establishment of the British Ecological Society in 1913 and the Ecological Society of America, founded in 1916, provided a professional basis for ecology. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: lime;">Ecology</span> has become a well-known word but sadly the discipline of <span style="color: #4c1130;">ecology</span> is not well understood and is even equated with environmentalism and being 'green'. That is another topic which cannot be discussed here. As the science of ecology (objective, quantifiable, experimental) began to emerge early this century it was, not surprisingly, going to have close links with biogeography not surprising because both ecologists and geographers were interested in the patterns of distribution of organisms in space and in time and the processes which determined those patterns. As early as 1924, Richard Hesse in his Tiergeographie auf Oekologischer Grundlage wrote about `ecological animal geography' as a young science. When this work was later translated and published in 1937 it made a marked impact on ecological and biogeographical studies in both Europe and North America. Later academics such as the Americans Robert McArthur and Edward Wilson wrote as if there were no real difference between biogeography and ecology. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The term '<b>ecological biogeography</b>' has since been widely used. Although the distribution of organisms and the factors and processes causing those distributions is central to the study of biogeography, ecology is concerned mainly with interactions between organisms and their environ-ment, patterns and processes in ecosystems, as well as with the distribution and abundance. But the study of distribution could also be considered to be a 5 part of the study of abundance; factors affecting distribution will also affect abundance. Studies of distribution and abundance can be undertaken at different levels of organisation, including populations, species and biological communities. Previously, community-based ecological studies were promi-nent in Europe and North America in the early part of the 20th century. Then in the 1950s came the publication of a particularly important contribution to the scientific study of distribution and abundance. This was a book called The Distribution and Abundance of Animals by two Australian biologists, H. G. Andrewartha and L. C. Birch (1954). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Rather than studying biological com-munities, these authors had established a strong statistical and analytical approach to population ecology involving three aspects: (1) physiology and behaviour of animals; (2) physiography, climate, soil and vegetation; (3) numbers of individuals in populations. Andrewartha & Birch stressed the spatial relations between 'local popula-tions'. Also, in theprevious work of early ecologists such as Watt (1947), there was reference to shifting mosaics of populations; that is, species found on natural) occurring patchy and transient habitats. These references to y population processes have more recently found their way into the literature dealing with the theory of metapopulations . </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Later, we give examples of how biogeographical information can be ana-lysed . In addition to examples of analysis we also describe some theories and models that have been used in biogeographical studies. But why theories and what is a model? In biogeography, theories (that is sets of ideas to try to explain or test something) are used to try to understand processes (for example, the processes which determine the number of species on an island). Models are theories that can he tested to some extent and therefore may be used to predict the effects of certain impacts on the natural world (for example, climate change on the distribution of biological communities). </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-36927699358895444822017-01-22T13:25:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.726+03:00Plants, Animals and other Organisms<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">T</span>here</b> are approximately million named species of living
oganisms. The total number of living species is of course not known and we can
only estimate what the figure might be. Estimates range from about 11 to 30
million or more. What is certain is that human impacts are causing species to
become extinct faster than they can be named. Also of concern is our lack of
knowledge about the named species. Scientists have intensively investigated
only 10 per cent of plant species and a far smaller proportion of animal
species (information from the World Commission in Environment and Develop-ment
198- publication Our common Future, Oxford University Press). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There are many
terms used to refer to different groups of animals, plants and other kinds of
living organism such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. The classification of
biota (living organisms) has been reviewed and changed many times as a result
of new information. In 1969, R. H. Whittaker of Cornell University suggested
five groups of living organisms . More recently, new taxonomic levels
and regrouping of major taxa have been proposed as a result of studies in
<b>molecular biology</b>. Commonly used terms for living organisms include 'wildlife:
and more recently the widely misunderstood term 'biological diversity' (often
ab-breviated to biodiversity). Wildlife is often used only with reference to
mammals and birds. In this book it refers to any kind of wild organism tn
dnmesticated<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> <b><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">B</span>iogeography:</span></b> the nature of the subject geography, taxonomy, geology, climatology and ecology. Many biologists, taxonomists, geologists, climatologists and ecologists have interests in various aspects of biogeography and indeed some have particular views as to the precise nature of biogeography. Those differences in views are based partly on differences of scale, be it in time or spatially. For example, a geologist's view might be particularly biased by an interest in evolutionary processes over very long periods of time (millions of years) perhaps in relation to plate tectonics. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: orange;">Geographers</span></b> might take a special interest in researching the distribution of plants and animals over the last few thousand years, perhaps in relation to the post-glacial periods. An ecologist's view of biogeography might be dominated by those factors which determine and maintain the distribution of plants and animals within certain localities and over much shorter periods of time (perhaps in relation to the reduction and fragmentation of habitats in the last few decades). These different views contribute to the rich and varied nature of biogeographical research and its many important, practical applications. The common theme in all approaches to the study of biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of groups of plants, animals and other organ-isms from a spatial or space perspective (that is, over land, in the soil, in water and in the air) and a temporal or time perspective (that is changes in distribution that occur over time). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Biogeography provides a valuable link between traditional single disciplines (such as <b><span style="color: #274e13;">ecology</span></b>, taxonomy and conser-vation biology) and a focus for interdisciplinary studies. That is important because many if not all environmental problems facing us today require an interdisciplinary approach (that is an integration of several disciplines, in-cluding ecology, geology, economics, policy and sociocultural factors). Biogeography is more than about mapping the geographical distribution of organisms (present and past) at different spatial scales or merely dividing the land and sea into regions which are based on groups of characteristic organisms. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Once a predominantly descriptive discipline, <span style="color: #741b47;">biogeography </span>is now a quantitative science. It has applications in conservation, helping to establish a strategy for the location, extent and management of protected areas. It has applications in trying to achieve sustainable use of living resources and in environmental assessment by helping to ensure the least impact on the natural environment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> It has applications in helping to tackle many aspects of environ-mental change, whether it be modelling the effects of changing weather patterns on agriculture or those of introduced and invasive species on native (indigenous) commercial fish species. Before we can look in more detail at biogeography we need to know what we are dealing with and thus a brief introduction to the classification of organisms is helpful. </span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-68376799984704960912017-01-22T12:44:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.825+03:00Wood Rot Protection<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #783f04;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">P</span>rotection</span></b> focuses on fundamentals upon prevention of wood damage by fungi, and protection and preservation of wood (e.g., Willeitner and Liese 1992; Eaton and Hale 1993; Palfreyman et al. 1996; Murphy and Dickinson 1997; Zujest 2003; Goodell et al. 2003; Muller 2005). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Protection in the broader sense comprises non-chemical methods like organizational measures and measures by design, use of naturally durable woods, application of antagonisms, or wood modifications that do not affect the environment. Preservation predominantly stands for chemical measures. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The conditions for the development of wood fungi and protection principles that can be deduced from them. The principle of the wood protection consists of changing at least one of the three life prerequisites of fungi in wood in such a way that the development of fungi is impossible or at least inhibited. Fungal attack can be prevented </span><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">(Willeitner and Schwab 1981; Erler 2002; Willeitner 2000, 2003; Goodell et al. 2003; BOttcher 2005; Borsch-Laaks 2005; Schmidt 2005) by: - organizational protection (e.g., short and appropriate wood storage), - use of durable wood species (natural methods), - keeping away water by structural wood protection measures by design: appropriate surface and weather protection, use of vapor barriers, avoidance of condensation due to thermal insulations, salient roof to protect timber from rain, drawing off of rain, barrier to avoid direct contact between wood and adjacent material, or inside the wall against raise of moisture from the ground, - chemical wood preservation, - wood modifications that increase dimensional stability of wood, reduce uptake of moisture, or make it hard to digest, - use of antagonisms. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The moisture conditions in wood are of decisive importance for the develop-ment of wood fungi . The hazard classes of wood [to be replaced by "use classes" according to prEN 335-1 (2004) respectively ISO] that depend on wood use and timber moisture according to the German standard DIN 68800, parts 2 and 3 (1990, 1996), the corresponding potential application of durable timber, and the minimum requirements of chemical preservation measures. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Natural durability means the wood-own resistance against bacteria, wood-decay fungi, beetles, termites and marine borers, which will differ for a timber species against the various organisms. Wood durability is based on the pres-ence of accessory compounds, whereby it concerns numerous compounds from different chemical classes (Fengel and Wegener 1989; Obst 1998). They are pro-duced in the living tree during transition from the sapwood to the heartwood and are deposited in the heartwood (Taylor et al. 2002). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Thus only the heart-wood exhibits natural durability, while the sapwood of all wood species is only little or not durable. The European standard EN 350-2 (1994) uses a five-class system to group 128 timbers according to their durability against fungi. Wood with high durability against fungi (durability class 1, very durable) is e.g., greenheart (durable also against termites and marine organisms). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">European oak is durable (class 2), walnut is moderately durable (class 3), Norway spruce is slightly durable (class 4), and European beech not durable (class 5) (also Au-gusta and Rapp 2003, 2005; Willeitner 2005a). Natural durability of some bam-boo species against four decay fungi was investigated by Remadevi et al. (2005). The influence of the felling time on resistance is controversially discussed. It has to be considered that fresh winter-felled wood is less susceptible to damage due to other moisture, drying, and climatic conditions than wood felled in the summer. There are however no differences if the wood is carefully dried (Willeitner 2005a). </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-22446513198126107572017-01-22T12:40:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.671+03:00Soft Rot <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The term "<b><span style="color: #cc0000;">soft rot</span></b>" was originally used by Findlay and Savory (1954) to describe a specific type of wood decay caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes which typically produce chains of cavities within the S2 layer of soft- and hardwoods in terrestrial and aquatic environments (Liese 1955), for example when the wood-fill in cooling towers became destroyed despite water saturation, and when poles broke, although they were protected against Basidiomvcetes. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">About 300 species (Seehann et al. 1975) to some 1,600 examples of ascomvcete and deuteromvcete fungi (Eaton and Hale 1993) cause soft rot, e.g., Chaeromium globosurn (Takahashi 1978), Hurnicola spp., Lecythophora hoffrnannii, Monodictys putredinis, Paecilornyces spp., and Thielavia terrestris. Soft-rot fungi differ from brown-rot and white-rot Basidiomycetes by grow-ing mainly inside the woody cell wall trate, starting from the tracheidal lumina., by means of thin perforation hyphae of less than 0.5 pm thickness into the tertiary wall and re-orientate then as thin hyphae after L-bending in one direction or after T-branching in both directions along the microfibrils in the secondary wall (soft rot type 1, Nilsson 1976). In longitudinal wood sections, hyphal activity is recognizable in the polar-ized light by rhombus-shaped cavities in the secondary wall of different size and arrangement (Levy 1966; Butcher 1975), which may be lined up like a string of pearls : The thin hypha stops its growth and the eca\ritevnidsotghieun_ developed around the hypha by the release of enzymes rana:es) along what is described as the proboscis hypha. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Within the cavity, hyphal thickness increases to about 3 pm. From the tip of the cavity, the next fine hypha starts its growth, which results in the next cavity, and continuous enlargement of existing cavities and the formation of new cavities lead to total destruction of the S2 layer (Eriksson et al. 1990; Daniel 2003). </span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDmS41yUH_CMmfBq4XxDqGAGfRXl2ut6m0MbOrZBX0wjKnv3Hx3xQFAWTkV6flfl7wpPDjxqgjpO6d4l9fZVUY41xt1Er3yLrYkqQepqKBHyzL5gmmoLG9RNp94AYUVv5oJzDkxdMcWrU/s1600/wood+Soft+Rot++1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" height="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDmS41yUH_CMmfBq4XxDqGAGfRXl2ut6m0MbOrZBX0wjKnv3Hx3xQFAWTkV6flfl7wpPDjxqgjpO6d4l9fZVUY41xt1Er3yLrYkqQepqKBHyzL5gmmoLG9RNp94AYUVv5oJzDkxdMcWrU/s640/wood+Soft+Rot++1.jpg" title="Presentation on theme: "Wood Chemistry PSE 406: Lecture 231 Wood Chemistry PSE 406/Chem E 470 Lecture 21: Decay (Part 1)"— Presentation transcript:" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">SEM and TEM showed that the hyphae are normally associated with a variety of granular and fibrillar materials including extracellular slime, melanin and lignin breakdown products. In Lecythophora mutabilis, CCA was concentrated in the granular material (Daniel 2003). Several causes are discussed for oscillating hyphal growth and cavity formation . In cross sections, the cavities appear hole-shaped ("initial stage") and in-crease with advancing decay to larger wall openings. Finally, it comes to circular detaching of the tertiary wall ("advanced stage"). Because of their high lignin content, the tertiary and primary walls are attacked in the end ("late stage"). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It remains an incomplete skeleton of middle lamella/primary walls ("destruction stage"). In the soft rot type 2, which particularly occurs in hardwood (Zabel et al. 1991), the hyphae erode particularly from the lumen the tertiary wall and penetrate till the middle lamella/primary wall. As rare variant, diffuse and irregular cavities in the secondary wall were described (Anagnost et al. 1994). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Soft rot develops also in monocotyledons (bamboos: Liese 1959; Sulaiman and Murphy 1992). In a broader definition for soft rot, each significant fungal decay of the woody cell wall by non-basidiomycete fungi was suggested, which however contrasts to the white-rot causing Ascomycetes. </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-30603725081796587242017-01-22T12:38:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.689+03:00White Rot <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #274e13;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">W</span>hite-rot</span></b> research has been reviewed by Ericksson et al. (1990) and Mess-ner et al. (2003). White rot means the degradation of cellulose, hemicellu-loses, and lignin usually by Basidiomycetes and rarely by Ascomycetes, e.g., Kretzschmaria deusta and Xylaria hypoxylon. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #990000;">White rot</span></b> has been classified by macroscopic characteristics into white-pocket, white-mottled, and white-stringy, the different types being affected by the fungal species, wood species, and ecological conditions. From microscopic and ultrastructural investiga-tions, two main types of white rot have been distinguished (Liese 1970). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the simultaneous white rot ("corrosion rot"), carbohydrates and lignin are almost uniformly degraded at the same time and at a similar rate during all decay stages. Typical fungi with simultaneous white rot are Fomes fomentar-ws, Phellinus igniarius, Phellinus robustus, and Trametes versicolor in standing trees and stored hardwoods (Blanchette 1984a). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #783f04;">Wood decayed</span> by F. fornentarius, T versicolor and some other fungi shows black demarcation lines (zone lines) (Fig. 7.2a), by which different species, or incompatible mycelia of the same species separate themselves from each other, or mycelia dissociate them-selves from not yet colonized wood ("marble rot", in German: "Marmorfaule"). The lines result from fungal phenol oxidases, whereby fungal compounds or also host-own substances are transformed to melanin (Li 1981; Butin 1995).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> As a function of the moisture distribution in wood, or between different fun-gal species or incompatible genotypes, a compartmentalization of individual decay centers can result from black pseudosclerotic layers of firmly structured mycelium (Rayner and Boddy 1988; Eriksson et al. 1990).</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmmIogHLeeMHBOHQXQlG_M8j3D6aP1pnsLxbq6-SwoLGaBPj2HF1uJFK3EMTMCes4toSCZ63zCxCzEe_C781DZJsZWitKQr-xK8aSTYseAhlCrRASyMJm5U8I_BEzY3m2vNAuCfXvnZhE/s1600/White+Rot++2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmmIogHLeeMHBOHQXQlG_M8j3D6aP1pnsLxbq6-SwoLGaBPj2HF1uJFK3EMTMCes4toSCZ63zCxCzEe_C781DZJsZWitKQr-xK8aSTYseAhlCrRASyMJm5U8I_BEzY3m2vNAuCfXvnZhE/s400/White+Rot++2.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #bf9000;">Cell</span></b> wall decay can start by microhyphae producing holes in the secondary wall (Schmid and Liese 1966), which flow together to larger wall openings with advancing decay. Usually, however, the hyphae grow inside the lumen with close contact to the tertiary wall. The hypha surrounded by a slime layer excretes the degrading agents, which are active only in direct proximity of the hvpha. Thus, a lysis zone develops under the hypha, and the hypha produces grooves in the wall which is gradually reduced in thickness, like a river erodes theg round (Schmid and Liese 1964; Liese 1970). </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-89600943713752110632017-01-22T12:25:00.001+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.899+03:00Brown Rot <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: #783f04;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">B</span>rown</b> Ro</span>t is caused by Basidiomvcetes, which metabolize the carbohydrates cellulose and hemicelluloses of the woody cell wall by non-enzymatic and enzymatic action and leave the lignin almost unaltered , whereby the brown color develops. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Brown-rot</span></b> fungi do not produce lignin-degrading enzymes. There are how-ever reports of lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase in some brown-rot fungi, and lignin loss or metabolization by brown-rot fungi have been reported. Particularly in later stages of decay, the highly lignified middle lamella/primary walls were observed to undergo attack. Also, the penetration of the wood cell wall by bore holes removes lignin in the process, all suggesting that low molec-ular weight lignin degrading agents and potentially even lignin degrading enzymes max occur in some brown-rot fungi, at least with localized activity (Goodell 2003).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Laccase activity was also found in Coniophora puteana (Lee et. al. 2004), and in Glocophyllum trabeum and Oligoporus placenta (Goodell 2003). Non-enzymatic, low molecular agents produced by the brown-rot fungi are responsible for initial stages of cell wall attack (Goodell 2003; Chap. 4). Of about 1,700 wood-degrading Basidiomycetes in North America, only 120 species (7%) caused brown rot, and of these 79 (65%) were polypores (Eriksson et al. 1990; Ryvarden and Gilbertson 1993). White-rot fungi distribute broader over the different basidiomycetous groups and some belong to the Ascomycetes (Rayner and Boddy 1988). Most brown-rot fungi affect conifers (Ryvarden and Gilbertson 1993), while white-rot fungi occur more frequently on hardwoods. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #073763;">Brown rot</span></b> occurs in standing trees, felled and processed wood as well as in sapwood and heartwood. In the northern hemisphere, the majority of timber used in construction is from conifers. Thus, a large part of wood in outdoor and indoor service is destructed due to the action of brown-rot fungi. Brown rot is usually uniformly distributed over the substrate. A brown cubical pocket rot is caused by Laurelia taxodii in cypress and by Oligoporus amarus in incense cedar. Decay pockets are localized and surrounded by firm wood (Zabel and Morrell 1992). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A woody substrate both may show brown rot and white rot; a standing tree of Picea engelmannii exhibited "white pocket rot" by Phellinus pini in the heartwood , and after wind throw the healthy areas became brown-rotten (Blanchette 1983). Brown-rot wood debris is extremely stable due to its content of slightly modified lignin and has remained unaltered in the soil for centuries. In conifers forests, this humic material may comprise up to 30 vol % in the upper layers (Swift 1982; Ryvarden and Gilbertson 1993). </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-43679941403543970172017-01-22T12:25:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.774+03:00Wood Rot <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There are three types of fungal <b><span style="color: #38761d;">wood</span></b> rot: brown, white, and soft rot . Further terms are either older names (e.g., destruction rot = brown rot), specifications (red rot = white rot by Heterobasidion annosum) or terms used in practice ( marble rot = white rot with black demarcation lines) or false names (blue rot = blue stain). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">According to the classical school of thought a fungal species causes only one type of decay, and species causing different rots shall not be grouped in the same genus [e.g.: Lentinus lepideus: brown <b><span style="color: #b45f06;">rot</span></b>; Lentinula (in former times Lentinus) edodes: white rot]. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Regarding the delineation between the three decay types, there are, however, exceptions: The brown-rot fungus Coniophora puteana produced cavities to be typical of <b><span style="color: #741b47;">soft-rot fungi</span></b> and erosion and thinning of the cell wall to be charac-teristic of white-rot fungi (Kleist and Schmitt 2001; Lee et al. 2004). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Fistulina hepatica revealed the soft-rot mode in cell walls rich in syringyl lignin, whereas brown rot was associated with cells rich in guaiacyllignin (Schwarze et al. 2000). Several white-rot Basidiomycetes like Phellinus pini (Liese and Schmid 1966) as well as Inonotus hispidus and Meripilus giganteus caused cavities (Schwarze and Fink 1998; Schwarze et al. I995a), which differed between the host trees, cell type, and location in the annual ring. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>C</b></span>avities in the secondary wall of fibers and tracheids were also found to be caused by two Armillaria species as well as by Stereum sanguinolenturn, Ganoderma applanatum, and Grifola fron-dosa (Schwarze and Engels 1998). It was hypothesized that soft-rotting activity of white-rot Basidiomycetes may commonly precede white rotting when the fungus invades previously uninfected zones in the xylem, in which moisture content is high. Delignification of Norway spruce tracheids by Stereum san-guinolentum associated with the presence of radial and concentric clefts containing cell wall entities in the secondary wall (Schwarze and Fink 1999) supporting observations of a radial and concentric arrangement of cell wall constituents within the S2 (Sell and Zimmermann 1993). </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-21628650473547617902017-01-22T01:30:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.668+03:00 Protection <br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">To</span></b> avoid microbial <b><span style="color: #990000;">wood</span></b> discoloration, the generally suitable measures against fungi (e.g., Liese et al. 1973; Liese and Peek 1987; Grog et al. 1991; Yang and Beauregard 200 1) are listed in Table.<br />
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Felling in the cold season and fast processing of the stems through well coordination between forestry and wood industry reduces microbial activity during storage of the stems in the forest. Cool, shady, and ventilated storage without ground contact and with unhurt bark to maintain high wood moisture content and to prevent lateral infections are favorable. Lumber discoloration can be prevented by prompt air-drying in well-ventilated stacks protected against rain by a roof, or by kiln-drying. Wet storage of stemwood by sprin-kling or ponding protects against fungi and insects. Currently, stem storage is performed in a N<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>/CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> atmosphere (Mahler 1992; Bues and Weber 1998; Maier at al. 1999).<br />
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<b>Table :</b> reventive measures to avoid microbial wood discolorations and decay<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- felling in the cold season </span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- appropriate storage of fresh wood </span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- coordination between forestry and wood industry </span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- drying - wet storage </span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- storage in N2/CO2 atmosphere </span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">- chemical preservation </span></b><br />
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During wet storage, however, wood quality may become reduced by degr, (Willeitner 1971; Karnop 1972a, 1972b; lotion oldie pits by anaerobic bacteria Adolf et al. 1972), by oxidative discolorations of phenolic compounds diffusing out ward (Höster 1974), and by brown discoloration of the outer . log parts through phenolics rom the bark (Peck and Liese 1987; Bues 1993). </div>
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Sprinkled stems were even colonized by A rmillaria mellea, which "drilled" a borehole from the bark into the xylem to provide itself with air and subse-quently decayed the wet wood (Metzler 1994). Discoloring fungi and molds may be rather tolerant towards several fungi-cides, which inhibit decay fungi. Numerous protective agents were investi-gated for their effectiveness against mold and blue-stain fungi: e.g., Karstedt et al. (1971), Wolf and 1,iese (1977), Nunes et al. (1991), Laks et al. (1993), Wakeling et al. (1993), and Suzuki et al. (1996). </div>
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<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Sodium pentachlorophenate</span></b> (PCP-Na) had been used for dipping and spraying procedures against discol-oration and decay (Willeitner et al. 1986). In view of the negative impact on humans, animals, plants, and the environment, utilization of PCP and import of PCP-treated woods are however restricted in Germany due to contamina-tions of PCP with polychlorinated dibenzodioxines and dibenzofuranes as well as due to the development and release of these compounds during burning of PCP containing woods. Dependent of material and intended purpose, e.g., boron compounds, quaternary ammonium compounds or dithiocarbamates may be used . Solid wood, wood composites (Gardner et al. 2003), and gypsum wallboard treated with borate were tested for mold performance (Fogel and Lloyd 2002). Boron compounds were used against blue-stain in Norway spruce (Babuder et al. 2004) and rubber wood (Akhter 2005). </div>
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Against discolorations of drying oakwood by Paecilomyces variotii, treatment of the fresh wood with 5-10% propionic acid was recommended (Bauch et al. 1991). Growth of molds and bacteria during the outdoor storage of sugarcane bagasse on Trinidad that is used there for the production of fiberboards was reduced by organic sulfur compounds and propionic acid (Liese and Walter 1980). Although blue-stain fungi do not reduce wood quality significantly, discol-oration is considered as substantial damage and is a perpetual problem of round wood and timber. </div>
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Despite felling during the cold season as well as using y ventilated stacking of the lumber, damage nevertheless occurs by blue-stai <b> fungi</b>. A two-year experiment with pine wood using different felling times and storage variations showed that damage of the round timber might be reduced and that rapid timber seasoning has the greatest influence (Schumacher and lli Schulz 1992). Un unsolved problem is the discoloration of bright tropical afterwo odfsei like ge Pycnanthus, Virola, Aningeria and Pterygota (Bauch et al. 1985), and during shipment and drying of the sawn timber.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-88337197625972171982017-01-21T13:53:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.894+03:00Biogeography<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: lime;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">B</span>iogeography</span></b>: the nature of the subject, its history and its applications </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In 1994, an article in the journal New Scientist proclaimed that 'Since biogeography holds the key to the survival of life, it deserves more attention' (Bowman, 1994). That statement is a very fitting opening to this first chapter. <b>Biogeography</b> is about the geography of plants, animals and other or-ganisms, that is, the study of the geographical distribution of plants, animals and other organisms. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Biogeographical research helps us to understand the patterns and processes of distribution and the factors that cause and maintain those patterns and processes. The patterns of distribution that we find today amongst living organisms have been determined by many things, including the following: Evolution Physiological and behavioural adaptations Dispersal mechanisms and levels of dispersal abilities Competition between species Ecological succession Climate change Sea level changes Moving continents through a process called plate tectonics Direct and indirect impact of humans The distribution and abundance of plants (phytogeography) and animals (zoogeography) have been the two main divisions of biogeography. Both those divisions embrace elements of several disciplines including biology, geography, taxonomy, geology, climatology and ecology. Many biologists, taxonomists, geologists, climatologists and ecologists have interests in various aspects of biogeography and indeed some have particular views as to the precise nature of biogeography. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Those differences in views are based partly on differences of scale, be it in time or spatially. For example, a geologist's view might be particularly biased by an interest in evolutionary processes over very long periods of time (millions of years) perhaps in relation to plate tectonics. Geographers might take a special interest in researching the distribution of plants and animals over the last few thousand years, perhaps in relation to the post-glacial periods. An <b>ecologist's</b> view of biogeography might be dominated by those factors which determine and maintain the distribution of plants and animals within certain localities and over much shorter periods of time (perhaps in relation to the reduction and fragmentation of habitats in the last few decades). These different views contribute to the rich and varied nature of biogeographical research and its many important, practical applications. The common theme in all approaches to the study of biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of groups of plants, animals and other organ-isms from a spatial or space perspective (that is, over land, in the soil, in water and in the air) and a temporal or time perspective (that is changes in distribution that occur over time). Biogeography provides a valuable link between traditional single disciplines (such as ecology, taxonomy and conser-vation biology) and a focus for interdisciplinary studies. That is important because many if not all environmental problems facing us today require an interdisciplinary approach (that is an integration of several disciplines, in-cluding ecology, geology, economics, policy and sociocultural factors). Biogeography is more than about mapping the geographical distribution of organisms (present and past) at different spatial scales or merely dividing the land and sea into regions which are based on groups of characteristic or-ganisms. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Once a predominantly descriptive discipline, <b><span style="color: #351c75;">biogeography</span></b> is now a quantitative science. It has applications in conservation, helping to establish a strategy for the location, extent and management of protected areas. It has applications in trying to achieve sustainable use of living resources and in environmental assessment by helping to ensure the least impact on the natural environment. It has applications in helping to tackle many aspects of environ-mental change, whether it be modelling the effects of changing weather patterns on agriculture or those of introduced and invasive species on native (indigenous) commercial fish species. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Before we can look in more detail at <b><span style="color: #cc0000;">biogeography</span></b> we need to know what we are dealing with and thus a brief introduction to the classification of organisms is helpful. We then go on to introduce the subject of biogeography and the </span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09489409908524598979noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-26376598480105424562017-01-21T01:00:00.000+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.681+03:00 Red Streaking <span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #990000; font-size: large;"><b>Red</b></span> Streaking Red-streaking discoloration (known as "Rotstreifigkeit" in Germany) is one of the most common and important damage in seasoning logs and sawn lumber, occurring only in conifers (spruce, pine, fir) and recognized as a distinct con-dition in continental Europe. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The stripe-shaped to spotted yellow to reddish-brown discoloration extends in logs from both their bark-covered faces and from their cut ends (Butin 1995; Baum and Bariska 2002) . Stems that are not debarked show a rather flat discoloration and debarked stems exhibit a streakier staining (v. Pechmann et al. 1967). Causal agents are several white-rot Basidiomycetes, in spruce particularly Stereum sanguinolentum (Kleist and Seehann 1997) and <b>Amylostereum</b> areola-turn. In south Germany, Amylostereum chailettii is common (Zycha and Knopf 1963; v. Pechmann et al. 1967). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In pine, red streaking is mainly due to <b><span style="color: #741b47;">Trichap-turn</span></b> abietinum (Butin 1995). According to Kreisel (1961), S. sanguinolentum and T. abietinum occur often together in stored logs. Red streaking develops if the wood remains in a semi-moist state over a long period, especially in the warmer season (v. Pechmann et al. 1967). The <span style="color: #38761d;"><b>fungi gain </b></span>access to the wood through the exposed cut ends and bark fissures. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The mycelium reaches its greatest density in the medullary rays, where the fungus uses the primary storage compounds in the ray parenchyma cells. From there, the discoloration spreads axially deeply in the <b>wood</b>, penetrating the bordered pits and also by thin bore hyphae that perforate the tracheids cell wall (Kleist and Seehann 1997; Kleist 2001). Logs may be stained during overseas shipment, and red streaks producing fungi become again active in rewetted boards due to their ability to dryness resistance. The staining is mainly an oxidative process (Butin 1995). Kleist (2001) stated that the fungi involved excrete the pigments. The moisture optimum of most species lies between 50 and 120% u. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Red-streaking fungi are slowly growing white-rot fungi, so that initially no serious strength loss is connected with turning red. During longer colonization how-ever an intensive white rot develops with substantial mass and strength loss, so that red streaking damage represents a transition from discoloration to decay (v. Pechmann et al. 1967; Peredo and Inzunza 1990). Secondary infections by brown-rot fungi may occur. Red-streaked wood samples were degraded in the lab test more strongly by brown-rot fungi than controls without pre-infection. From reddish discolored fir wood, 26 Basid-iomycetes (white and brown rot) and numerous blue-stain and mold fungi were isolated (v. Pechmann et al. 1967). From Pinus radiata wood, different molds, blue-stain fungi, Stereum sp. and the white-rot fungi Ganoderma sp., Schizophyllum commune and Trametes versicolor were isolated (Peredo and Inzunza 1990).</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisUXQDUtriM0Lk1NLlNI_DqcVxs6ICCAUrPBCTYSZ98ZBeZgOHGQ29264vZKj_rr8fmtzXLSaLicu0B2rECIJ1umtQVHSpHrazmuv5B243oOpEBhycGEYXuQfxnI3afV2Z8XvIUavxWYU/s1600/Red+Streaking+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisUXQDUtriM0Lk1NLlNI_DqcVxs6ICCAUrPBCTYSZ98ZBeZgOHGQ29264vZKj_rr8fmtzXLSaLicu0B2rECIJ1umtQVHSpHrazmuv5B243oOpEBhycGEYXuQfxnI3afV2Z8XvIUavxWYU/s400/Red+Streaking+2.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Spruce wood samples from forest dieback sites contained more often A. areolatum and S. sanguinolentum compared to samples from healthy forests (Schmidt et al. 1986). Stereum sanguinolentum Bleeding Stereum small, thin, resupinate to semipileate fruit body, soft-leathery-crusty, bowl-shaped, upper surface: felty, concentrically zonate, yellow-brown, whitish-wavy margin ; bright to grey-brown hymenium blood-red after injury; dimitic (Breitenbach and Kranzlin 1986); amphithallic (Calderoni et al. 2003); apart from the saprobic way of life also parasitic after penetration through wounds and thus the most important species of "wound rot of spruce" (Butin 1995); stacked wood not attacked; genus Stereum with multiple clamps (Kreisel 1969). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Trichaptum abietinum Fir Polystictus <b>fruit body</b>: annual, resupinate to semipileate and pileate, singly and roofing tile-like; upper surface: white-grey-brown, thin, felty, hirsute, zonate, leathery; pore surface: young net-shaped to porous, old: labyrinthine; young hymenium reddish with angular violet pores, later brown-violet; dimitic (Breitenbach and Kranzlin 1986); tetrapolar heterothallic (Nobles 1965); saprobic on stumps, stored logs and finished wood; severe white rot at high wood moisture; rarely on living trees (Kreisel 1961). </span><br />
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Kadir CELEPhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16372008899695147008noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-85415704663955193832017-01-20T12:36:00.001+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.883+03:00Blue Stain <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #20124d;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">B</span>lue stain</span></b> (synonymous sap stain) is a blue,grey or black, radially striped dially stri wood discoloration of sapwood, which can be caused by about 100 to 250 (Kaarik 1980) fungi belonging to the Ascomycetes and De (1999) and others differentiated three uteromycetes. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Seifert groups of blue-stain fungi: - Cerato-cystis, Ophiostoma and Ceratocystiopsis species (Upadhyay 1981; Perry 1991; Gibbs 1999), - black yeasts such as Hormonema dematioides, Aureobasidium pullulans, Rhinocladiella atrovirens, and Phialophora species, - dark molds such as Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, and C. cladospo-rioides. Yang (1999) differentiated dark staining fungi, such as Ophiostoma piliferum on jack pine, Ceratocystis minor on white pine, and C. coerulescens on white spruce, and light staining fungi, such as 0. piceae, C. adiposa and Leptographium sp.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Frequently, like in the Ophiostoma species, the teleomorph is a perithecium . Blue stain occurs in conifers, particularly in pine, but also in spruce, fir, and larch, in hardwoods, like beech and birch, and in tropical woods. The stain may be superficial or penetrate deeply into the wood. In heartwood species, only the sapwood discolors, since blue-stain fungi live mainly on the content of the parenchyma cells. shows some details of blue stain. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The hyphae are brown colored due to melanin (Zink and Fengel 1989) and relatively thick . Some species like A. pullulans develop dark-brown, thick-walled chlamydospores . </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The blue-black color of th. e wood develops as optical effect due to refraction of light. Hyphae penetrate into stem wood from cross sections or radially through bark fissures and move via the medullary rays. Easily accessible nutrients (sugars, carbohydrates, starch, pro-teins, fats, extractives) are taken up lase have from the ray parench.)rmacells.bXluylea-nstaasien nnanase, p Xylanase, maectinase and amye been detected in several fungi s of the bordered through the torus (Schirp et al. 2003a). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">From the rays, the hyphae penetrate into the longi-tudinal tracheids with mechanical pressure pits (thin hyphae through the margo) and grow there from cell to cell through the pits. Because fungi colonize the sapwood tracheids and fibers, components of the capillary liquid also might be used as nutrients. Although there are special microhyphae, transpressoria , which can break through the wood cell wall, probably by physical pressure and/or enzymatic action (Schmid and Liese 1966; Liese 1970), in most cases the strength properties of wood are hardly affected. Thus, the occasionally used term "<b>blue rot</b>" is wrong. Some species however caused some strength loss. Toughness was the property most seriously affected (Seifert 1999; Schirp et al. 2003b). In most cases, however, the damage to wood is mainly cosmetic. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The damage however affects domestic and export earnings for the forest industries. <b>For example</b>, Pinus radiata in New Zealand is highly susceptible to blue stain with an estimated annual loss in revenue of NZ$ 100 million per year (Thwaites et al. 2004). Temperature minimum depends on the species, and is between 0 and —3°C; the optimum is between 18 and 29 °C and the maximum is between 28 and 40 °C. The moistures pan reaches from fiber saturation close to umax. In many species, the optimum is between 30 and 120%(Kaarik 1980; Schumacher and Schulz 1992). For log colonization, moisture loss in the felled tree of 10-15% is sufficient. </span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxejoG9ENEzq_dbCb0Kc-Y_MzsJywOhxht4fY7cgEpDnoOpGWdQoAsBHj9bWfJU9IGU37y-DOzvbbJEkzYvY2lEYbdCpHeRmb_SnNjftsgiYoht2THb5NFJ5lA-Snlua3XtAuoyz8duIk/s1600/Blue+Stain++2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxejoG9ENEzq_dbCb0Kc-Y_MzsJywOhxht4fY7cgEpDnoOpGWdQoAsBHj9bWfJU9IGU37y-DOzvbbJEkzYvY2lEYbdCpHeRmb_SnNjftsgiYoht2THb5NFJ5lA-Snlua3XtAuoyz8duIk/s400/Blue+Stain++2.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #45818e;"></span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #45818e;">Blue stain</span></b> occurs during seasoning or transportation ofgreen lumber before the wood is dried and is enhanced at relative humidities above 90% (Seifert 1999). Blue-stain fungi were arranged into different ecological groups (Butin 1995): In blue stain of stems (primary blue stain), spores of Ophiostoma species (mois-ture optimum 50-130%), particularly Ophiostoma piceae (Harrington et al. 2001) and also Discula pinicola are transferred by wind in bark wounds (forest work or wood transport) as well as by bark beetles particularly in un-debarked pine stems which are allowed to dry out slowly over weeks or months while ly-ing in the forest (Neumaller and Brandstatter 1995). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Hormonema dematioides, A. pullulans, and a <b><span style="color: #274e13;">Leptographium</span> </b>species were the most frequently isolated stain-fungi from bark and sapwood of living Pinus banksiana trees. There were indications that none of the well-known log-staining fungi was associated with healthy living jack pine trees, and it was deduced that prompt transportation of logs from forests to sawmills and sanitary treatment of log storage yards thp ceverity- of log staining before sawing (Yang 2004)</span><br />
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Kadir CELEPhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16372008899695147008noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6025487920868114088.post-30759618166493517752017-01-19T19:08:00.001+03:002017-03-04T00:25:34.693+03:00Molding <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The term mold originates from daily life and is not a taxonomic. name of a single systematic group (Reiss 1997; Killerand Morelet 1000). The Deuteromycetes (fungi imperfecti) constitute an artificial group and comprise a great variety of 20,000 -30,000 species of 1,700 genera of I-1 phomycetes and 700 genera of Coelomycetes. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The different molds have a broad spectrum of physiological response with regard to temperature, water activity, pH value etc. and thus can colonize and damage very diverse materials (molding).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Molds are significant in view of damages to foodstuffs, deterioration of natural materials (leather, books, textiles, wallpapers), Nv t h regard to human and animal health, and for biochemists and the manufacturers of antibiotics [77) of about 3,200 admitted antibiotics Originate from fungi: Muller and Loeffler (1991)], organic acids e.g., citronic acid, malic acid: Rehm (1980)1, enzymes (e.g., amylase, protease, lipase, cellulase, pectinase), cheese (Penicillium camemberti, P salami sausages (P. nalgiovense), and "country cured ham" (Aspergillus spp., spp.) (Schwantes 1996; Reig 1997). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Botrytis cinerea causes the "noble rot" of sweet wines. Fusarium oxysporum ssp. cannabis is used as an herbicide for suppressing marijuana plants (Kiffer and Morelet 2000). Even synthetic floor coverings, airplane fuels, oils, glues, paints, optical glasses, and textiles can be overgrown with and damaged by molds. With regard to lignocelluloses, seeds, seedlings, young tree roots (Schonhar 1989), standing trees (Schmidt 1985), stored and blocked wood (Wolf and Liese 1977; Bues 1993), piled wood chips (Feicht et al. 2002) of the pulp industry (Hajny 1966), stored annual plants, like sugarcane bagasse (Schmidt and Walter 1978), and books (Kerner-Gang and Nirenberg 1980) can be colonized by molds. Paecilomyces variotii (mold and soft-rot activity) is involved in the yellow discoloration of oak wood during storage and drying (Bauch et al. 1991). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There are German and European standards and test methods to measure growth of molds on and resistance of substrates like electrotechnical products, plastics, textiles, optic apparatus, and timber (Kruse et al. 2004). Frequently, molds are recognizable by their fast growth on the surface of substrates, on which conidia develop rapidly . </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Due to the species-specific color of the conidia, wood colonized by several mold species can make a multicolored impression, or it outweighs e.g., black due to Aspergillus nicer or green after Penicillium spp. or Trichoderma spp. colonization. Trichoderma species were the most frequent fungi on spruce roots from for-est •dieback sites (SchOnhar 1992). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Stored beech stems are frequently colonized by Bispora monilioides, which causes black, radially arranged, elliptical strips on the fresh trunk cross surface. Molds develop on fresh cuts after tree felling, particuldarrliyedoannthe(iairnt7giisltt sapwood, on inappropriately stored lumber, insufficiently </span><br />
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