Classification

Approximately 120,000 fungal species are described. If the numerical ratio between vascular plants and fungi of 1:6 in botanically well-examined regions, like Great Britain, however, is transferred to a global scale of 270,000 vascular plants, 1.6 million fungi might exist. That is, so far only about 10°A) of the actual fungal species are described (Anonymous 1992b).

Robson (1999) even estimated 3 million fungal species. Nomenclature regulates the constitution of names, their validity, legitimacy andpriority or synonymy, and maintains a single correct name for each taxon (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, St. Louis Code 2000). In view of the author names for fungi, these have to be only abbreviated when more than two letters are saved. Names are always abbreviated between a consonant and a vowel. The abbreviation should not cause confusion with other names. Contractions by omission of letters are avoided. Sanctioned names are indicated with "Fr." or "Pers." after the author of the first valid publication. An example might be shown by Trametes versicolor (L.: Fr.) Pilat (Table 2.10) (Jahn 1990). "(L.: Fr.) Pillar means that Linne (L.) described the fungus with the name Boletus versicolor in "Species plantarum" in 1753. Fries (Fr.) included it as Polyporus versicolor in "Systema mycologicum" in 1821 that is the epithet "versicolor" was protected (sanctioned). Pilat placed it in the genus Trametes in 1939. Particularly French mycologists prefer Coriolus versicolor (L.: Fr.) Quelet, because the French author included the fungus in this genus in 1886.

Quelet, because the French author included the fungus in this genus in 1886. In the various national colloquial languages and even within a state, different names are used. For the classification of fungi, there are different attempts of artificial and natural systems. The various groups of fungi have little in common, except the heterotrophy for carbon, that they are Eukaryotes, possess a slightly dif-ferentiated tissue, and exhibit in at least one period of life cell walls as well as spores as resting and distributing forms.

Only for practical reasons they are nevertheless united. Multi-kingdom systems (Whittacker 1969) consider the polyphyletic origin of the fungi by attaching the slime fungi and "lower fungi" to the Protista and the "higher fungi" to the Fungi, but break thereby the tra-ditional biological and ecological term fungus. A generally recognized fungal classification system does not exist, and it was ironically argued that there might be as many systems as there are systematists.

Due to new knowledge, and depending on the priority, which is attached to a certain characteristic, taxonomic revisions occur in the classification system as well as changes of fungal naming (names of wood fungi: e.g., Larsen and Rentmeester 1992; Rune and Koch 1992). Current names are shown in Appendix 2. The coarse grouping in Table 2.11 is based on Muller and Loeffler .

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Reproduction of Deuteromycetes

F ungi that reproduce asexually (anamorphic fungi ) are either yeasts or Deu-teromycetes. The term "yeast" is descriptive and stands for any fungus that reproduces by budding. Deuteromycetes (Fungi imperfecti, colloquially: molds) is an artificial as-semblage of fungi that reproduce asexually by conidia (conidiospores), either as the only form for propagation (imperfect fungi) or additionally (anamorph) to a sexual reproduction (teleomorph). When both the anamorph and the teleo-morph are known, the fungus is called a holomorph (the whole fungus). The teleomorph may have one (mono-anamorphic) or many (pleo-anamorphic) asexual stages. In other words: Deuteromycetes are the conidia-producing forms of a fungus and may or may not be associated with a teleomorph. Many Deuteromycetes are supposed to have a teleomorph in the Ascomycetes, but they may also have basidiomycetous affinity. Also in the wood-inhabiting Deuteromycetes, the teleomorph often is of ascomycetous a

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Islands

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Red Streaking

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Ecosia ; Ecology Search

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Bioenergetics

T housands of chemical reactions occur throughout the body during each minute of the day. Collec-tively, these reactions are called metabolism. Metab-olism includes chemical pathways that result in the synthesis of molecules (anabolic reactions) as well as the breakdown of molecules (catabolic reactions). Since energy is required by all cells, it is not sur-prising that cells possess chemical pathways that are capable of converting foodstuffs (i.e., fats, proteins, carbohydrates) into a biologically usable form of energy . This metabolic process is termed bioenergetics. In order for you to run, jump, or swim, skeletal muscle cells must be able to continuously extract energy from food nutrients. In fact, the inability to transform energy contained in foodstuffs into usable biological energy would limit performance in endurance activities. The explanation for this is simple. To continue to contract, muscle cells must have a continuous source of energy. When energy is not rea

White Rot

W hite-rot research has been reviewed by Ericksson et al. (1990) and Mess-ner et al. (2003). White rot means the degradation of cellulose, hemicellu-loses, and lignin usually by Basidiomycetes and rarely by Ascomycetes, e.g., Kretzschmaria deusta and Xylaria hypoxylon. White rot has been classified by macroscopic characteristics into white-pocket, white-mottled, and white-stringy, the different types being affected by the fungal species, wood species, and ecological conditions. From microscopic and ultrastructural investiga-tions, two main types of white rot have been distinguished (Liese 1970). In the simultaneous white rot ("corrosion rot"), carbohydrates and lignin are almost uniformly degraded at the same time and at a similar rate during all decay stages. Typical fungi with simultaneous white rot are Fomes fomentar-ws, Phellinus igniarius, Phellinus robustus, and Trametes versicolor in standing trees and stored hardwoods (Blanchette 1984a). Wood decay

Soft Rot

The term " soft rot " was originally used by Findlay and Savory (1954) to describe a specific type of wood decay caused by Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes which typically produce chains of cavities within the S2 layer of soft- and hardwoods in terrestrial and aquatic environments (Liese 1955), for example when the wood-fill in cooling towers became destroyed despite water saturation, and when poles broke, although they were protected against Basidiomvcetes. About 300 species (Seehann et al. 1975) to some 1,600 examples of ascomvcete and deuteromvcete fungi (Eaton and Hale 1993) cause soft rot, e.g., Chaeromium globosurn (Takahashi 1978), Hurnicola spp., Lecythophora hoffrnannii, Monodictys putredinis, Paecilornyces spp., and Thielavia terrestris. Soft-rot fungi differ from brown-rot and white-rot Basidiomycetes by grow-ing mainly inside the woody cell wall trate, starting from the tracheidal lumina., by means of thin perforation hyphae of less than 0.5 pm thickne

Antagonists, Synergists, and Succession

Interactions (reciprocal effects) between wood fungi have been early investi-gated e.g., by Oppermann (1951) and Leslie et al. (1976), and were described in detail by Rayner and Boddy (1988). Antagonism (competitive reciprocal effect), the mutual inhibition and in a broader sense the inhibition of one organism by others, is based on the pro-duction of toxic metabolites, on mycoparasitism, and on nutrient competition. Antagonisms are investigated as alternative to the chemical protection against tree fungi ("biological forest protection") and against fungi on wood in service ("biological wood protection") (Walchli 1982; Bruce 1992; Holdenrieder and Greig 1998; Phillips-Laing et al. 2003). As early as 1934, Weindling showed the inhibiting effect of Trichoderma species on several fungi. Bjerkandera adusta and Ganoderma species were antagonistic against the causing agent of Plane canker stain disease (Grosclaude et al. 1990). Also, v. Aufseg (197

Sexual Reproduction

A specific feature of the sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes and Basid-iomycetes is that plasmogamy of haploid cells and karyogamy of two nuclei (n) to form a diploid nucleus (2n) are separated from each other temporally as well spatially by the dikaryophase (two-nuclei phase, dikaryon, n + n, ===) (Fig.1). A dikaryotic hypha is one with two nuclei that derive from two haploid hyphae, but in which the nuclei are not yet fused by karyogamy. Particularly in Basidiomycetes, the dikaryotic phase is considerably ex-tended. By conjugated division of the two nuclei (conjugated mitosis), by division of the dikaryotic hypha, and by means of a special nucleus migration connested with camp formation both daughter cells become again dikaryotic. Ascomycetes The life cycle of a typical ascomycete is shown in Fig.1 (also Muller and Loeffler 1992; Eaton and Hale 1993; Schwantes 1996; Jennings and Lysek 1999). Haploid (n) spores (A, ascospores or conidia from an anamorph) germi-nate

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